The electrical resistance of rires Essay Example for Free

The electrical resistance of rires Essay In this investigation I will be looking at the resistance of wires to an electrical current and determining the factors that affect the resistance of a wire. There are five main factors that affect the resistance of a piece of wire. These are as follows: 1) The material that the wire is made of. 2) The length of the wire 3) The thickness (or diameter) of the wire. 4) The temperature of the wire. 5) Voltage of the circuit. However, in my investigation I will only be looking at two different factors that affect the resistance of the wire. These two factors are length of the wire and thickness of the wire. Apparatus For this investigation I will need several pieces of apparatus, these are as follows: 1) A ruler (to measure the length of the piece of wire that is being used). 2) Wires (to connect the circuit together) 3) A multimeter (to measure the resistance of the wire) 4) A role of Constantine wire. Method In this investigation I will do as follows: As I will be investigating one variable at a time, I will need to keep the other variables constant. When measuring the length I will always use the same material: Constantan wire. Also I will make sure that the wire does not get hot by not measuring any less than 10cm. Also, I will always use the same thickness wire, 32SWG (standard gauge). However, when I am looking at the factor of thickness I will make sure that the wire does not get hot, that the wire is Constantan wire and that the wire is always a set length, 50cm long. I need to keep the variables that I am not looking at or measuring the same at all times because of the fact that if I have two variables varying at the same time then I will not know which variable affected my results or how much it affected them. Because of this I will only be looking at one factor at a time to make sure that my results are as accurate and true as possible. In both factors I will always be using the same multimeter throughout. I will look at the factor of length first. In this I will keep the variables that I am not investigating the same so as to make it a fair test. Then, I will set up my circuit (See below this paragraph) Then, I will take readings of the resistance with the wire at a length of 10cm using the multimeter set at 200?. Multimeter Ruler Constantan wire I will then repeat the experiment with a 20cm piece of wire and measure the resistance of that. I will do this with pieces of wire 10cm, 20cm, 30cm, 40cm, 50cm, 60cm, 70cm, 80cm, 90cm and 100cm long to get a good range of readings and results. When I will measure the affect that thickness has on the resistance of a piece of wire I will do the experiment with 20, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34 and 38SWG thickness of Constantan wire. I will also repeat each test for both variables 3 times and gat an average to make it a fair test. Predictions My hypothesis for the investigation concerning the length is this: As the wire gets longer, the resistance will increase. This will be in direct proportion and will produce a straight-line graph. I think that this will occur: As the electrons move through the wire, they collide into ions. This makes the resistor hotter and is what causes the resistance. The longer the piece of wire, the more ions for the electrons to collide into, therefore the resistance will increase. The graph that I will plot should be a straight-line graph; according to OHMS LAW. The graph should look like this: Ohms law states that for some conductors, the current flowing is proportional to the voltage, provided that the temperature does not change. For example, if you double your length of wire, then the resistance will also double. My prediction for the other factor that I am going to investigate, thickness, is this: As the thickness of the wire increases, the resistance will decrease. This is inverse proportion. I predict that this will also give a straight-line graph but going downwards instead of upwards. The graph should look like this: I think that this will happen because of the fact that the thicker the wire, the greater the number of electrons that will be able to travel through it at one time. Results Testing the thickness. Using a 50 cm long piece of Constantan wire: SWG Equivalent in mm 1st attempt 2nd attempt 3rd attempt AverageThe Graphs Testing the Thickness using 50cm Constantan wire Testing the Length using 32SWG Constantan Wire Analyzing the Data Length From my results and my graphs I can see that as the length of the wire increases, the resistance of the wire also increases. As my graphs gave a straight line at all times and points, I can say that the resistance is directly proportional to the length of the wire. Because the resistance is directly proportional to the length, I can say that if the length is 10cm and the resistance is 0. 5Ohms, when the length of the wire is 20cm, the resistance should be 1. 0Ohms. These results support my prediction. An odd occurrence is that the line does not pass through the origin (0,0). I believe this is because of slight errors in the readings whish make the line pass just above the origin. Thickness From my results, I can see that as the millimeters increase the resistance decreases. Therefore we can say that the thickness is inversely proportional to the resistance, as the thickness increases the resistance decreases. This was as I expected. However, in my prediction, I predicted that the graph would be a straight line and in my actual results my graph turned out to be a curve. Because of the fact that the graph is inverse proportion, I can say that if you double the SWG then you will half the resistance. My results support part of my prediction (that the resistance will be inversely proportional to the thickness) but not the part that states that the graph will be a straight-line graph. On this graph I used millimeters instead of SWG because it makes it easier to see the relationship between the resistance an the thickness of the wire. Evaluation In my investigation, I only investigated two of the different factors that affect the resistance of a wire. However, there are more than that, as I stated earlier on in my plan. There are also the factors of Material, Temperature and Voltage to be investigated. I could have extended my investigation further by also looking into and testing these other 3 factors. However, I only investigated 2 factors, the length and thickness. Length I think that overall, my results were fairly accurate but definitely could have been more accurate. For 32SWG, the results were a little inaccurate but nevertheless were accurate enough to produce a good directly proportional straight-line graph. I could have made more accurate results and a more varied set of results by doing the experiment at more than just 32SWG. This would have given more varied results at different thicknesses. I could have made my results more accurate by doing the experiment more than 3 times (perhaps 5 times) and taken the average of each set of results. This would have given me more accurate results. Inaccuracy in the results (like in the first attempt on length at 40cm) may have been due to the fact that the equipment used may not have been working properly or plain human fault. Also, when measuring the length of wire to be tested, it is possible that I may have slightly misread the length on the ruler by a couple of millimeters because of kinks and twists in the wire making it nearly impossible to get a perfectly straight piece of wire. This may have caused slightly inaccurate results. Thickness My results for testing the thickness were, on the whole, quite accurate with the exception of minor mistakes. This could have been due to an inaccurate length of wire, a temperature change or an inaccurate reading. However, the over all results produced a good smooth inversely proportional curve. If I were to conduct this experiment again I would have used more accurate equipment and tested more lengths at more SWGs than I did to give a more varied set of results. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Electricity and Magnetism section.

Hinduism And The Child Bearing Process Theology Religion Essay

Hinduism And The Child Bearing Process Theology Religion Essay Having a baby and changing your life with a new being is a very important part of life. Regardless of culture and traditions, it is a very special process for most mothers, fathers and families in all cultures around the world. This essay will look in depth into the ways the Hindu culture views child bearing, infant feeding, post partum beliefs and in general how their beliefs differ from our Canadian modernized culture. Child-bearing The Hindu religion in itself is a very tight-knit culture, relying a lot on the power of their Gods and finding enormous strength in the faith itself. The child-bearing process is no exception. Ceremonies are usually performed during pregnancy to ensure the health of the mother and growing child (Hindu, 2012). Initially at conception a ceremony called samskar is performed and this involves prayers of hope that a child will fulfill the parents obligation to continue the human race. There are rituals that the father practices with the mother such as the father parting the hair of the pregnant mother three times upward from the front to the back, this is believed to assure ripening of the embryo inside. Also, charms may be placed on or around the mother that ward off evil eyes and witches and demons. As the pregnancy advances there are a set of prayers that are held during a ceremony to continue the blessings of the mother and child. Between the fourth and seventh months of pregnancy a ceremony called Simantonnayana is held in which the father combs his wifes hair and expresses his love and support for her. Traditionally in the seventh month of pregnancy Hindus have another ritual that is performed which would be compared to a modernized Canadians version of a baby shower, this is called Seemantham. This event is organized by the family members and involves gift-giving and religious rituals. A prayer to fire is recited to sooth the expectant mother. Light instrumental music is played, and it is believed that this will refine the development of the babys ears (Hindu, 2012). During pregnancy the mother usually assumes a passive role and follows directions of the trained professionals (Leifer, 2011). During all examinations and the actual birthing process a female couch is usually preferred and they value the teachings of professionals. While the woman is in labour, her head is usually covered and if any examinations are to be done to the mother the husband must always be present. Rituals immediately following the birth of the child are practiced as well. Prior to the cutting of the umbilical cord, the father may touch the babys lips with a gold spoon or ring dipped in honey, curds and ghee. The word vak (meaning speech) is whispered three times into the right ear, and mantras (prayers) are chanted (Leifer, 2011). This ritual is normally called Jatakarma and is viewed as a sacrament or samskar. This ritual is given by the father to welcome and give blessings to ensure a long life, peace and to continue the generation of talent for the newborn child. After the newborn is delivered the sex of the child is not revealed until the placenta is delivered. This information is with-held to delay stress of the mother if the gender of the child is not of her preference until after the placenta is delivered. One of the last rituals in this category includes the performance of Namakarana (a ceremony done to name the child). This is held between the tenth and forty-first days of life. This particular ceremony marks the childs formal entry into his or her seat of Hinduism. Names are chosen according to astrology (BeliefNet, 2012) and a consultation is done in deciding the name of the child and usually names of Hindu gods or goddess are chosen and preferable. Hindus believe this tradition is special and a blessing because you will have an added benefit of remembering how your child was named. Infant Feeding Typically a newborn baby in the Hindu culture is breastfed; the belief is that by feeding the child breast milk, mothers are worshipped by the Hindu goddess Durga (the mother goddess). It is believed that breast milk is thought to have special powers which are in their religious text as the Sushrauta Samhita. These texts also recommend delaying breastfeeding until true milk comes in. (McKenna, 2009). Following religious beliefs a mothers colostrum and prelacteal feeding is discarded. Among some Hindus colostrums is discarded because of a belief that its thickness and viscosity may be difficult for the newborn to swallow. Also, there are beliefs that the first breast milk is stale or old from being stored in the breasts for the duration of the pregnancy (McKenna, 2009). Mothers ensure that their breasts are washed and all colostrums are discarded for the first day until the true milk comes in. Hindus also believe that by discarding the colostrum they are purifying the tubes of the mot hers mammary glands. Prior to the mothers giving their child the true milk, Hindus give prelacteals which their religious beliefs and cultural backgrounds state they are to have positive effects on the babys gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems. Hindus use prelacteals like honey and ghee, which are thought to evacuate meconium, reduce colic and act as a laxative (McKenna, 2009). When the infant reaches an age of six or seven months an Annaprasana ceremony is performed for the first solid foods. Annaprasanas meaning is anna= rice and prasana= to enter, thus the reasoning why rice is typically the first food given, and is given at this ceremony. The difference of the month for the ceremony depends on the gender of the child. A girl childs ceremony is held on an odd month, while a boys ceremony would be on an even month. When a baby gets solid food for the first time numerous prayers are offered to the child. It is believed with Annaprasana that the flaws that arise due to intake of impure food are removed. At the ending of this ceremony different articles such as books, fruits, toys and money are spread in front of the child. The baby is allowed to touch these items and it is believed that what the baby touches first will be his interest for rest of its life. Post Partum Beliefs Typically in most Indian cultures after a baby is born there is a lot of family support for the mother and many believe that the baby is to be handled as little as possible to allow its spine to grow normally. For the post partum women sponge baths are usually done (Leifer, 2011) in the Hindu culture. Usually the woman who delivered the child is kept in seclusion for 40 days postpartum (Leifer, 2011). This time of seclusion allows for bonding of the woman and child and immediate family. After this bonding time is complete then other family, friends and presents are welcomed into the home of the child. A traditional art of painting the skin with Henna is also performed on the woman after having a baby. Hennaing a woman after she gives birth is a traditional way to deter the malevolent spirits that cause disease, depression, and poor bonding with her infant. The action of applying henna to a mother after childbirth, particularly to her feet, keeps her from getting up to resume housewor k. A woman who has henna paste on her feet must let a friend or relative help her care for older children, tend the baby, cook and clean. This allows her to regain her strength and bond with her new baby (Cartwright Jones, 2002). Personal Reflection The process and importance of having a child in the Hindu religion really intrigues me. Although every culture finds importance and happiness in the process of a new child being welcomed into their family, the Hindu religion has opened my eyes into how special and meaningful this process can be. All the ceremonies and special activities that are done to embrace this beautiful time in life made me wish some of these special events were incorporated in modernized Canadian cultures. I truly believe that having this much culture and religious belief incorporated into having a child makes it even more special. It is very important as a nurse that you take the time and consideration to value all the different areas that cultures around the world celebrate and embrace different parts of life, such as having a baby. As a nurse you must be respectful of each and every persons beliefs and be culturally aware that every person regardless of race, color or culture may choose to embrace this part of life in their own way. It is the responsibility of the nurses and health professionals to make this the best possible experience for them and in turn being respectful to their wishes, regardless if they are different than your own.

F Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom Oceans Policy

F Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom Oceans Policy Introduction The Worlds current approach to ocean policy and sustainable maritime development is based on two main International strategic foundations: UNCLOS and UNCED. Both if integrated they provide the basis for oceans governance and oceans policy frame work. They enable states to exercise and protect Nationals sovereign rights and jurisdiction over marine resources and offshore areas. At the same time they obligate states to ensure ocean uses are ecologically sustainable. The implementation of the provisions of UNCLOS, related Conventions, rules and standards relating to the protection and preservation of the marine environment and to the conservation and management of living marine resources, as well as the implementation of the commitments agreed to in Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, present some of the major challenges facing the international ocean community. These challenges cannot be met by one region, one State, one ministry, or one local community alone. It is therefore very important to st rengthen cooperation and coordination at all levels. At the national level, the marine dimension must be integrated within the overall national policy. The adoption of an ocean policy is a very important mechanism to achieving an integrated, interdisciplinary, intersectoral and ecosystem-based approach to oceans management. A coherent legislative framework is also essential. However the development of this national oceans policy depends on every state situation. Vertical and horizontal integration between these two foundations, need a high political umbrella and a lead ministry for setting the national marine agenda. This agenda must be based on sound scientific priorities development plan required for understanding how best to protect Nationals marine biological diversity, the ocean environment and its resources, and on a wide consultation process with all stakeholder. Comparative analysis of the development process of national ocean policy in major maritime nations such as Austral ia, Canada, the United Kingdom, shows in spite of the fact that Agenda 21 has provided a clear defined programme and management activities, each country have followed a different approach in developing its national oceans management strategy. All of them have used these two international foundations and their guiding principles in developing their oceans policies. These approaches are integrated in content and are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit, as required by UNCLOS and as reflected in the Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 programme areas. The first programme in chapter 17 is Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas, including exclusive economic zones. (Agenda 21, 1992). To this end, and according to Chapter 17 the state should establish the necessary strengthening appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a high-level policy planning body) (Agenda 21, 1992). It further states Such mechanisms should include consultation, as appropriate, with the academic and private sectors, non-governmental organizations, local communities, resource user groups, and indigenous people. Also coastal states are required to improve their capacity to collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of resources, including environmental impacts of activities affecting the coastal and marine areas. Information for management purposes should receive priority support in view of the intensity and magnitude of the changes occurring in the coastal and marine areas. Other related management activities include: Preparation and implementation of land and water use and sitting policies; Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels; Preparation of coastal profiles identifying critical areas, including eroded zones, physical processes, development patterns, user conflicts and specific priorities for management; Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation and follow-up of major projects, including the systematic incorporation of results in decision-making; Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters, including likely effects of potential climate change and sea level rise, as well as contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic origin, including spills of oil and other materials; Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in housing, drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid wastes and industrial effluents; Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and phenomena to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment are met; Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats; Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development for settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries affecting the coastal area; Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employment; Human resource development and training; Public education, awareness and information programmes; Promoting environmentally sound technology and sustainable practices; Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental quality criteria. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia stands at a cross road. The Kingdom has the opportunity to develop its maritime sector and sustainably manage national marine resources. The status of national marine resources and governance is not good; marine resources are degraded and marine governance is inadequate. This indicates that an urgent action is needed to save the threatened national seas and opportunities. As has been highlighted and underlined in previous chapters, Saudi Arabia marine governance must be reorganized under one document: a comprehensive National Marine Policy. Comprehensive national marine policies are a relatively new trend in ocean governance. As implied they address all marine and coastal issues. NMPs are a response to the sectoral fragmented approach currently dominating marine governance which often leads to unorganized management and authority as new responsibilities are delegated to different agencies as they arise. In addition to incorporating all marine and coastal i ssues, NMPs seek to integrate all levels of governance: local, provincial, national, regional and international. The term integrated management is used to describe this approach. Although many countries and regions have created comprehensive marine or ocean policies, I focus on marine policy development process and governance as developed and experienced in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom for two reasons: First they represent the first three leading countries in the world that have developed comprehensive ocean policy and governance framework and is being implemented and tried to differing levels of success; Canada enacted the Oceans Act of 1996 followed by the release of Australias Ocean Policy in 1998. Great Britain followed in May 2002, with Safeguarding Our Seas: A Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Development of our Marine Environment. Each country has followed a different policy route to sustainable oceans development. While Australia has followed a totall y pure policy frame work by providing a new structure, mechanism and policy guidance for delivering its comprehensive national oceans policy; Canada followed a different approach by first providing a comprehensive legal framework for oceans uses and resources management within Canada different maritime zones including the 200nm EEZ and continental shelf, second by producing Canada Oceans Strategy in July of 2002. The United Kingdom has followed a totally different approach by first developing a conservation strategy followed by introducing a single piece of legislation to protect the marine environment by enacting in 2009 the Marine and Coastal Act. Second, the three countries have developed their policies in accordance with Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 and based on the 1994 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Being the world leaders in oceans policies, I focus on oceans policy development process in these three countries as examples; their successes and leadership role in oceans policy can guide the creation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia National Marine Policy. Comparative Overview of Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom oceans policy Australia: Initiation Process: Australia is the first country to set in place a policy framework for an integrated and ecosystem based planning and management for all of Australias marine jurisdictions. With the release of Australias Oceans Policy (AOP) in 1998, Australia has demonstrated a world leadership by implementing a coherent, strategic planning and management framework for dealing with complex issues confronting the long term future of Australias oceans (AOP1, 1999). AOP was initiated by a political announcement from the prime minister, followed by a wide public consultation process using a consultation document (Oceans- New Horizon). AOP process was initiated by the end of 1995 when the Prime Minister at that time announced that the Commonwealth government had agreed to the development of an integrated oceans strategy that would deal with the management of Australias marine resources (AOP, 1998). However, due to the federal election and change of government little progress was achieved, but in 1996 the n ew government announced that it would continue developing the oceans policy as being an environmental protection policy and transferred the responsibility for developing the policy agenda from the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet to the Department of Environment, Sport and Territories (DEST) (Bateman, 1997). Later on the name of this department has been changed to the Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH) charged with protecting and conserving Australias natural environment and cultural heritage. Lead Ministry: In 1996 the new Australian government announced that it would continue developing the oceans policy as being an environmental protection policy and transferred the responsibility for developing the policy agenda from the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet to the Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH) (Vince, 2003). As a result of the transfer of responsibility for oceans policy development, Australia Environment Minister led the process by establishing an intergovernmental committee to assist with the preparation of the policy (Vince, 2003). Using the collaborative arrangements and formal intergovernmental linkages, the Minister established a committee encompassing members from major Commonwealth agencies involved in marine affairs. Also a number of other committees were formed during these early stages of development to assist with the development of a discussion paper (Vince, 2003). The Committee has prepared the Oceans-New Horizon paper which has been launched in M arch 1997 to assist in the first consultations round with State, Territory and Local governments, peak bodies and organizations and the general public. The New Horizon set out a draft vision, goal and objectives for Australia Oceans Policy and an indication of some of the broad issues relevant to an Oceans Policy as well as briefly introducing some of the features of Australia oceans (New Horizon, 1997). Consultation Process: After the publication of the New Horizon paper a second round of consultation begun through a public forum to review the draft policy paper (MAGOP, 1998). During this process, Environment Australia organised public forums where the public could get an overview of the Issues Paper and to provide comment. The forums consisted of two parts, the first part included a formal briefing from Environment Australia officials while the second component was an information session organised by the state branches of the Marine and Coastal Communities Network (MCCN) (Vince, 2003). Maritime Ministerial Board Before the release of AOP the Australian Government established a Ministerial Advisory Group on Ocean Policy in 1997 to provide advice to the Minister for Environment and Heritage on the views of the broad range of stakeholders of the policy and any other issues the Group thought relevant to the development of the policy (AOP1, 1998). It has also been suggested that the MAGOP was established to gain the support of NGOs during the Policy process as well as to promote public awareness (Vince, 2003). Later on the MAGOP was replaced by a National Oceans Ministerial Board (NOMB) of key Commonwealth Ministers, chaired by the Minister for the Environment and Heritage (Foster, 2005). The task of the board is to drive the implementation of the AOP by overseeing regional planning processes, furthering policy development, overseeing cross sector coordination, setting priorities for program expenditure and coordinating the Oceans Policy with State governments (AOP1, 1998). Oceans Strategy: Based on the wide policy consultation process Australia was quickly able to develop its sustainable National Ocean Policy and vision of Healthy oceans: cared for, understood and used wisely for the benefit of all, now and in the future(AOP1, 1998). The aim of the strategy is to overcome problems perceived to arise from a division of powers and responsibilities leading to jurisdictional overlap and inconsistencies in ocean management (Vince, et al. 2003). The strategy also intends to overcome the problems and limitations imposed by sector based management by supporting integration across sectors through regional marine planning. AOP came in two volumes (AOP1, 1998). The first volume targeted nine major objectives: 1) exercise and protect Australias rights and jurisdiction over offshore areas, including offshore resources. 2) To meet Australias international obligations under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and other international treaties. 3) To understand and prot ect Australias marine biological diversity, the ocean environment and its resources, and ensure ocean uses are ecologically sustainable. 4) To promote ecologically sustainable economic development and job creation. 5) To establish integrated oceans planning and management arrangements. 6) To accommodate community needs and aspirations. 7) To improve expertise and capabilities in ocean-related management, science, technology and engineering. 8) To identify and protect Australias natural and cultural marine heritage. 9) To promote public awareness and understanding (AOP1, 1998). The key principles that were used in developing Australia ocean policy intrinsically; indigenous peoples interests; stewardship ethic; intergenerational and social equity; ecologically sustainable use; conservation of biological diversity; participatory, transparent and accountable decision making and management; and integrated planning and management(AOP1, 1998). Ocean Action Plan: The second volume of Australias Oceans Policy complements the first volume of the Policy by outlining specific measures that are being or will be pursued by the Commonwealth across ocean sectors and interest(AOP2, 1998). The Specific Sectoral Measures volume is comprehensive in its scope, covering the major environmental, industry, community, research, scientific, international and defence interests that the Commonwealth has responsibility for in marine jurisdictions. The document has identified 390 commitments across those five broad areas and detailed implementation schedule of actions. The schedule identified organisations responsible for implementing actions, priorities, milestones and resourcing (AOP2, 1998). This detail facilitated the auditing of the Policy and contributed to an assessment of its effectiveness. New Institution To implement AOP a National Oceans Office (NOO), was established to provide secretariat and technical support and programme delivery for oceans policy initiatives(AOP1, 1998). The NOO was responsible for coordinating the overall implementation and finalize the detailed implementation schedule of actions and further development of the Oceans Policy(AOP2, 1998). NOO also was responsible for coordination and distribution of information on oceans policy implementation and regional marine planning matters to all stakeholders(Addison and Chenko, et al. 2005). Other new institutions included the National Oceans Ministerial Board, Regional Marine Plan Steering Committees and the National Oceans Advisory Group (NOAG). In 2005 NOO lost its executive agency status and is now located within the Marine Division of the Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH, 2005). The Minister of Environment and Heritage has the responsibility for NOO through the department and reports to Cabinet on its prog ress (Haward and Vince, 2006). Ocean Research Priorities Plan: Whilst AOP development process was progressing, the Marine Science and Technology Working Group, comprising representatives of Australian Government marine science and related agencies, as well as State research institutions and non-government marine science interests; were working to develop Australias Marine Science and Technology Plan (Alder, 2001). The government aimed to develop and release the Plan as a companion to Australias Oceans Policy(Vince, 2004). The Marine scientific advisory committee was tasked with promoting coordination and information sharing between Government marine science agencies and across the broader Australian marine science community(AMSTP, 1999). The MSTC prepared a Marine Science and Technology Plan to provide a strategy, consistent with the Oceans Policy, for integrated and innovative science, technology and engineering. The Plan encompasses three major programs under each program multiple objectives(AMSTP, 1999): . Understanding the Marine Environment ( 7 objectives) Using and Caring for the Marine Environment ( 15 objectives) Infrastructure for Understanding and Utilising the Marine Environment ( 6 objectives). Legislation:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Australia Oceans Policy has established new institutions to oversee the implementation of the Regional Marine Planning process. The institutions have emphasised a departure from traditional sectoral arrangements whilst incorporating over 100 laws and policy instruments addressing aspects of the management of the marine environment and the legal jurisdictional framework established through offshore federalism(Haward and Vince, 2006). The Offshore Constitutional Settlement (OCS) returned the jurisdiction over 3nm from the low water mark to the states(Stark, 2004). OCS remains the primary intergovernmental arrangement governing ocean and marine resources in Australia and makes up the jurisdictional framework for the development and implementation of the Ocean Policy(Vince, 2004). Since Australia Ocean Policy has been developed as being an environmental protection policy the principal Australian legislation is the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999(cth) (EPBC Act)(Akwilapo, 2007). The EPBC Act and the associated Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulation 2000 (EPBC Regulation) provide a national framework for Environment protection through focusing on protecting areas of national environmental significance and on the conservation of Australias biodiversity (Akwilapo, 2007). On the other hand, a commitment to ecologically sustainable development and multiple use management is embedded within the Oceans Policy framework emphasising a commitment to, inter alia, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Developments (UNCED) Agenda 21 principles and UNCLOS (Akwilapo, 2007). Integrated Marine Spatial Planning The AOP emphasised that Australia Regional Marine Plans is based on large marine ecosystems. This system helps to maintain ecosystem health and integrity while promoting multiple use of oceans by integrating sectoral commercial interests and conservation requirements. Australia approach to Integrated Ocean Planning and Management encompass the following(AOP2, 1998): Development of a new institutional arrangement comprising the National Oceans Ministerial Board, the National Oceans Advisory Group and the National Oceans Office and Regional Marine Plan Steering Committees. Providing policy guidance for oceans planning and management. Regional Marine Plan, based on large marine ecosystems. The first plan was developed for the south-eastern region of Australias EEZ. Funds for National marine resource surveys; development of sustainability indicators and monitoring; and rapid assessments of the biological resources of Australias oceans. The resulting information based was used to underpin effective regional integration for planning and management. These assessments also benefit industry by providing information on potential new resources such as deep-water fisheries and pharmaceuticals. Development of National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Development of Marine Parks and World Heritage Areas. Maritime Safety and Environment Protection Plan The Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) has developed a strategy to protect the marine environment from shipping operations through improved environmental management of shipping and related activities(Stark, 2004). The strategy encompass: designation of marine sensitive areas, promote improvement of waste reception facilities at ports, marinas and boat harbours, improve anti-fouling practices, management and piloting a national monitoring programme for marine debris, community and industry awareness, and support for the enhanced National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and Other Noxious and Hazardous Substances (the National Plan) (AOP1, 1998). Under the AOP the Government committed to enhance maritime safety and highlighted the importance of enhancing regional cooperative arrangement for search and rescue, development and implementation of search and rescue arrangements; implementation of the Global Maritime Distress Safety System(GMDS S), pursue consistent requirements for the use of Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs) and maritime communications for small vessels(AOP2, 1998). To further ensure the Safety of Navigation, the Government committed to maintain efficient coast-effective maritime safety navigation services and infrastructure, expansion of the local area Differential Global Positioning Systems (DGPS) services; technological development in marine navigation, and involvement in the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities and other international forums to ensure global navigational safety policies, standards and new technologies(AOP2, 1998). Maritime Surveillance and Security Plan To ensure that there is an effective and efficient surveillance capacity for Australias marine jurisdictions and effective enforcement of national legislation throughout Australias marine jurisdictions. Under the Oceans Policy the Australian government continued to pursue through the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and other; to increase action addressing illegal fishing in CCAMLR and adjacent waters; increased surveillance and enforcement measures in the Great Barrier Reef; continued to cooperate to review and rationalise effort involved in and capacity for surveillance and enforcement including reviewing legislation relating to enforcement in Australias marine jurisdictions(AOP2, 1998). The Oceans Policy highlighted that the Australian Defence Forces (ADF) tasks encompass safeguarding these areas, controlling of maritime approaches to exercise and protect Australias sovereignty and sovereign rights. This involve preparedness and continge ncy planning; maritime surveillance and response; fisheries law enforcement; search and rescue; hydrographic services; and the Australian Oceanographic Data Centre (AODC)(AOP2, 1998). Maritime Sector Development Plan During AOP development process the Marine Industry Development Strategy was also announced. The Strategy highlighted what the Marine Industry is worth what should incur for further resourceful developments(AOP2,1998). It illustrated that 90 per cent of Australias oil and gas is sourced offshore; that the shipbuilding industry supplies one third of the worlds high speed ferry market; wild capture fisheries represent a major primary industry; and that marine tourism is a booming industry(Vince, 2004). The Specific Measures Volume of Australia Oceans Policy underpinned several challenges facing the maritime sector and the various activities such as : fisheries; aquaculture; offshore petroleum and minerals; shipping; marine tourism; marine construction, engineering and other industries; pharmaceutical, biotechnology and genetic resources; and alternative energy resources. For meeting these challenges the policy proposed numerous activities under each one of them. For example to meet the shipping sector challenge to increase trade and regional development by delivering safe, efficient, competitive and environmentally responsible maritime infrastructure and shipping services(AOP2, 1998). The policy identified measures including: regulatory reform of the maritime sector with a view to removing barriers to competition, rationalise jurisdictional arrangements, harmonise standards and promote mutual recognition; and encourage continuous improvements in shipping and waterfront sectors to enhance the competitiveness of Australian trade and industry; to continue Australia leading role in international trade and maritime forums to ensure access to competitive and efficient international shipping services is maintained(AOP2, 1998). Marine Education and Training Plan Under Australias Marine Science and Technology Plan, NOO is responsible for providing advice to the Ministerial Board on marine research priorities relevant to the Oceans Policy to ensure that the marine research agencies are kept informed of the Governments emerging priorities(TFG, 2002). The NOMB is responsible to consider Government priorities for publicly funded marine research related to the implementation of the Oceans Policy including: community capacity building, networking opportunities, and community participation in marine management, research and monitoring and data collection; and provide opportunities for community representation on consultative committees in regard to marine resource management, the establishment of a new marine science research and teaching centre at Coffs Harbour; support for the Australian, Pacific and Global Oceans Observing Systems; establishment and operation of a Regional Office of the International Oceanographic Commission in Perth, Western Aus tralia; provision of quality maritime education and research; and training and employment in jointly managed parks; development of a long term marine education policy and programme for kindergarten to year 12 to be incorporated in curricula in all States and Territories; development of relevant resource materials for use in schools and Technical and Further Education colleges in cooperation with professional bodies; and support for the provision of quality practical educational material for teachers and students(AMSTP, 1999). National Maritime Information Center To improve monitoring and understanding of marine ecosystems and the impacts of resource use Australia government has developed the Australian Coastal Atlas, within the Environmental Resource Information Network (ERIN), to allow general access to adequate information for community involvement in oceans management as a fundamental element of the Australian Spatial Data Infrastructure(AOP2, 1998). Thus, the Australian government provided support for the Marine and Coastal Community Network to develop a comprehensive communication strategy to assist the public, industry and governments learn about and understand the role of Australias Oceans Policy. Also the government supported the Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (AUSLIGs) continuing development of the Australian Maritime Boundaries Information System as a national database of Australias maritime jurisdictional boundary data to provides Australias with an independent and scientifically credible information on Australias environment for decision-makers and the wider community(AOP2, 1998). AUSLIG is the Commonwealth focal point for coordination of geodetic information and works closely with State and Territory agencies, the Inter-governmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (ICSM) and industry groups towards the provision of the highest quality geodetic infrastructure(AUSLIG, 2009). Moreover, AUSLIGs under the ocean policy is responsible for the development of a coordinated observations and methods to analyse and interpret the data that will make optimum use of information from remote and in situ measurements at the space and time scales required for effective monitoring, use, management and conservation(AOP2, 1998). It is clear that the lack of a comprehensive system of monitoring sites, and lack of long-term commitment to monitoring inshore and offshore, particularly on the scale of large marine ecosystems has affected Australia ability to assess changes in the condition of the marine environme nt. Thus, AOP recognized that Integration of coastal, inshore and offshore monitoring activities is vital to National capacity for future assessments and maintenance of marine and coastal environments(AOP1, 1998). National Oceans Forum To provide for Community representation and participation, the AOP established a National Oceans Advisory Group as a non-government consultative and advisory body to the National Oceans Ministerial Board(AOP1, 1998). The NOAG is responsible for promoting strategic management of the ocean environment and its resources; to provide opportunities for community representation on consultative committees in regard to marine resource management and facilitate consultation with peak indigenous groups on the requirements for establishing a national consultative mechanism, such as an annual forum(AOP1, 1998). Thus, to promote implementation of Australia Oceans Policy, the policy called for holding a National Oceans Forum to coordinate across the agencies responsible for the development of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and a broad national cross-section of those with a stake in the management of Australia oceans(IOC, 2007). International Cooperation: Given the dynamic nature of the marine environment, AOP recognized that the effective implementation of the Oceans Policy requires cooperation with immediate neighbours and other countries to address the transboundary impacts and improve regional cooperation on ocean issues(AOP1, 1998). Thus, AOP called for: peaceful use of the oceans and cooperation in access for national and international scientific research and monitoring programmes; cooperation with neighbouring countries and with industries to maximise resources; improved cooperation and coordination between existing coastal mo F Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom Oceans Policy F Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom Oceans Policy Introduction The Worlds current approach to ocean policy and sustainable maritime development is based on two main International strategic foundations: UNCLOS and UNCED. Both if integrated they provide the basis for oceans governance and oceans policy frame work. They enable states to exercise and protect Nationals sovereign rights and jurisdiction over marine resources and offshore areas. At the same time they obligate states to ensure ocean uses are ecologically sustainable. The implementation of the provisions of UNCLOS, related Conventions, rules and standards relating to the protection and preservation of the marine environment and to the conservation and management of living marine resources, as well as the implementation of the commitments agreed to in Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, present some of the major challenges facing the international ocean community. These challenges cannot be met by one region, one State, one ministry, or one local community alone. It is therefore very important to st rengthen cooperation and coordination at all levels. At the national level, the marine dimension must be integrated within the overall national policy. The adoption of an ocean policy is a very important mechanism to achieving an integrated, interdisciplinary, intersectoral and ecosystem-based approach to oceans management. A coherent legislative framework is also essential. However the development of this national oceans policy depends on every state situation. Vertical and horizontal integration between these two foundations, need a high political umbrella and a lead ministry for setting the national marine agenda. This agenda must be based on sound scientific priorities development plan required for understanding how best to protect Nationals marine biological diversity, the ocean environment and its resources, and on a wide consultation process with all stakeholder. Comparative analysis of the development process of national ocean policy in major maritime nations such as Austral ia, Canada, the United Kingdom, shows in spite of the fact that Agenda 21 has provided a clear defined programme and management activities, each country have followed a different approach in developing its national oceans management strategy. All of them have used these two international foundations and their guiding principles in developing their oceans policies. These approaches are integrated in content and are precautionary and anticipatory in ambit, as required by UNCLOS and as reflected in the Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 programme areas. The first programme in chapter 17 is Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas, including exclusive economic zones. (Agenda 21, 1992). To this end, and according to Chapter 17 the state should establish the necessary strengthening appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a high-level policy planning body) (Agenda 21, 1992). It further states Such mechanisms should include consultation, as appropriate, with the academic and private sectors, non-governmental organizations, local communities, resource user groups, and indigenous people. Also coastal states are required to improve their capacity to collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of resources, including environmental impacts of activities affecting the coastal and marine areas. Information for management purposes should receive priority support in view of the intensity and magnitude of the changes occurring in the coastal and marine areas. Other related management activities include: Preparation and implementation of land and water use and sitting policies; Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels; Preparation of coastal profiles identifying critical areas, including eroded zones, physical processes, development patterns, user conflicts and specific priorities for management; Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation and follow-up of major projects, including the systematic incorporation of results in decision-making; Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters, including likely effects of potential climate change and sea level rise, as well as contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic origin, including spills of oil and other materials; Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in housing, drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid wastes and industrial effluents; Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and phenomena to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment are met; Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats; Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development for settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries affecting the coastal area; Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employment; Human resource development and training; Public education, awareness and information programmes; Promoting environmentally sound technology and sustainable practices; Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental quality criteria. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia stands at a cross road. The Kingdom has the opportunity to develop its maritime sector and sustainably manage national marine resources. The status of national marine resources and governance is not good; marine resources are degraded and marine governance is inadequate. This indicates that an urgent action is needed to save the threatened national seas and opportunities. As has been highlighted and underlined in previous chapters, Saudi Arabia marine governance must be reorganized under one document: a comprehensive National Marine Policy. Comprehensive national marine policies are a relatively new trend in ocean governance. As implied they address all marine and coastal issues. NMPs are a response to the sectoral fragmented approach currently dominating marine governance which often leads to unorganized management and authority as new responsibilities are delegated to different agencies as they arise. In addition to incorporating all marine and coastal i ssues, NMPs seek to integrate all levels of governance: local, provincial, national, regional and international. The term integrated management is used to describe this approach. Although many countries and regions have created comprehensive marine or ocean policies, I focus on marine policy development process and governance as developed and experienced in Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom for two reasons: First they represent the first three leading countries in the world that have developed comprehensive ocean policy and governance framework and is being implemented and tried to differing levels of success; Canada enacted the Oceans Act of 1996 followed by the release of Australias Ocean Policy in 1998. Great Britain followed in May 2002, with Safeguarding Our Seas: A Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Development of our Marine Environment. Each country has followed a different policy route to sustainable oceans development. While Australia has followed a totall y pure policy frame work by providing a new structure, mechanism and policy guidance for delivering its comprehensive national oceans policy; Canada followed a different approach by first providing a comprehensive legal framework for oceans uses and resources management within Canada different maritime zones including the 200nm EEZ and continental shelf, second by producing Canada Oceans Strategy in July of 2002. The United Kingdom has followed a totally different approach by first developing a conservation strategy followed by introducing a single piece of legislation to protect the marine environment by enacting in 2009 the Marine and Coastal Act. Second, the three countries have developed their policies in accordance with Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 and based on the 1994 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Being the world leaders in oceans policies, I focus on oceans policy development process in these three countries as examples; their successes and leadership role in oceans policy can guide the creation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia National Marine Policy. Comparative Overview of Australia, Canada and the United Kingdom oceans policy Australia: Initiation Process: Australia is the first country to set in place a policy framework for an integrated and ecosystem based planning and management for all of Australias marine jurisdictions. With the release of Australias Oceans Policy (AOP) in 1998, Australia has demonstrated a world leadership by implementing a coherent, strategic planning and management framework for dealing with complex issues confronting the long term future of Australias oceans (AOP1, 1999). AOP was initiated by a political announcement from the prime minister, followed by a wide public consultation process using a consultation document (Oceans- New Horizon). AOP process was initiated by the end of 1995 when the Prime Minister at that time announced that the Commonwealth government had agreed to the development of an integrated oceans strategy that would deal with the management of Australias marine resources (AOP, 1998). However, due to the federal election and change of government little progress was achieved, but in 1996 the n ew government announced that it would continue developing the oceans policy as being an environmental protection policy and transferred the responsibility for developing the policy agenda from the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet to the Department of Environment, Sport and Territories (DEST) (Bateman, 1997). Later on the name of this department has been changed to the Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH) charged with protecting and conserving Australias natural environment and cultural heritage. Lead Ministry: In 1996 the new Australian government announced that it would continue developing the oceans policy as being an environmental protection policy and transferred the responsibility for developing the policy agenda from the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet to the Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH) (Vince, 2003). As a result of the transfer of responsibility for oceans policy development, Australia Environment Minister led the process by establishing an intergovernmental committee to assist with the preparation of the policy (Vince, 2003). Using the collaborative arrangements and formal intergovernmental linkages, the Minister established a committee encompassing members from major Commonwealth agencies involved in marine affairs. Also a number of other committees were formed during these early stages of development to assist with the development of a discussion paper (Vince, 2003). The Committee has prepared the Oceans-New Horizon paper which has been launched in M arch 1997 to assist in the first consultations round with State, Territory and Local governments, peak bodies and organizations and the general public. The New Horizon set out a draft vision, goal and objectives for Australia Oceans Policy and an indication of some of the broad issues relevant to an Oceans Policy as well as briefly introducing some of the features of Australia oceans (New Horizon, 1997). Consultation Process: After the publication of the New Horizon paper a second round of consultation begun through a public forum to review the draft policy paper (MAGOP, 1998). During this process, Environment Australia organised public forums where the public could get an overview of the Issues Paper and to provide comment. The forums consisted of two parts, the first part included a formal briefing from Environment Australia officials while the second component was an information session organised by the state branches of the Marine and Coastal Communities Network (MCCN) (Vince, 2003). Maritime Ministerial Board Before the release of AOP the Australian Government established a Ministerial Advisory Group on Ocean Policy in 1997 to provide advice to the Minister for Environment and Heritage on the views of the broad range of stakeholders of the policy and any other issues the Group thought relevant to the development of the policy (AOP1, 1998). It has also been suggested that the MAGOP was established to gain the support of NGOs during the Policy process as well as to promote public awareness (Vince, 2003). Later on the MAGOP was replaced by a National Oceans Ministerial Board (NOMB) of key Commonwealth Ministers, chaired by the Minister for the Environment and Heritage (Foster, 2005). The task of the board is to drive the implementation of the AOP by overseeing regional planning processes, furthering policy development, overseeing cross sector coordination, setting priorities for program expenditure and coordinating the Oceans Policy with State governments (AOP1, 1998). Oceans Strategy: Based on the wide policy consultation process Australia was quickly able to develop its sustainable National Ocean Policy and vision of Healthy oceans: cared for, understood and used wisely for the benefit of all, now and in the future(AOP1, 1998). The aim of the strategy is to overcome problems perceived to arise from a division of powers and responsibilities leading to jurisdictional overlap and inconsistencies in ocean management (Vince, et al. 2003). The strategy also intends to overcome the problems and limitations imposed by sector based management by supporting integration across sectors through regional marine planning. AOP came in two volumes (AOP1, 1998). The first volume targeted nine major objectives: 1) exercise and protect Australias rights and jurisdiction over offshore areas, including offshore resources. 2) To meet Australias international obligations under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and other international treaties. 3) To understand and prot ect Australias marine biological diversity, the ocean environment and its resources, and ensure ocean uses are ecologically sustainable. 4) To promote ecologically sustainable economic development and job creation. 5) To establish integrated oceans planning and management arrangements. 6) To accommodate community needs and aspirations. 7) To improve expertise and capabilities in ocean-related management, science, technology and engineering. 8) To identify and protect Australias natural and cultural marine heritage. 9) To promote public awareness and understanding (AOP1, 1998). The key principles that were used in developing Australia ocean policy intrinsically; indigenous peoples interests; stewardship ethic; intergenerational and social equity; ecologically sustainable use; conservation of biological diversity; participatory, transparent and accountable decision making and management; and integrated planning and management(AOP1, 1998). Ocean Action Plan: The second volume of Australias Oceans Policy complements the first volume of the Policy by outlining specific measures that are being or will be pursued by the Commonwealth across ocean sectors and interest(AOP2, 1998). The Specific Sectoral Measures volume is comprehensive in its scope, covering the major environmental, industry, community, research, scientific, international and defence interests that the Commonwealth has responsibility for in marine jurisdictions. The document has identified 390 commitments across those five broad areas and detailed implementation schedule of actions. The schedule identified organisations responsible for implementing actions, priorities, milestones and resourcing (AOP2, 1998). This detail facilitated the auditing of the Policy and contributed to an assessment of its effectiveness. New Institution To implement AOP a National Oceans Office (NOO), was established to provide secretariat and technical support and programme delivery for oceans policy initiatives(AOP1, 1998). The NOO was responsible for coordinating the overall implementation and finalize the detailed implementation schedule of actions and further development of the Oceans Policy(AOP2, 1998). NOO also was responsible for coordination and distribution of information on oceans policy implementation and regional marine planning matters to all stakeholders(Addison and Chenko, et al. 2005). Other new institutions included the National Oceans Ministerial Board, Regional Marine Plan Steering Committees and the National Oceans Advisory Group (NOAG). In 2005 NOO lost its executive agency status and is now located within the Marine Division of the Department of Environment and Heritage (DEH, 2005). The Minister of Environment and Heritage has the responsibility for NOO through the department and reports to Cabinet on its prog ress (Haward and Vince, 2006). Ocean Research Priorities Plan: Whilst AOP development process was progressing, the Marine Science and Technology Working Group, comprising representatives of Australian Government marine science and related agencies, as well as State research institutions and non-government marine science interests; were working to develop Australias Marine Science and Technology Plan (Alder, 2001). The government aimed to develop and release the Plan as a companion to Australias Oceans Policy(Vince, 2004). The Marine scientific advisory committee was tasked with promoting coordination and information sharing between Government marine science agencies and across the broader Australian marine science community(AMSTP, 1999). The MSTC prepared a Marine Science and Technology Plan to provide a strategy, consistent with the Oceans Policy, for integrated and innovative science, technology and engineering. The Plan encompasses three major programs under each program multiple objectives(AMSTP, 1999): . Understanding the Marine Environment ( 7 objectives) Using and Caring for the Marine Environment ( 15 objectives) Infrastructure for Understanding and Utilising the Marine Environment ( 6 objectives). Legislation:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Australia Oceans Policy has established new institutions to oversee the implementation of the Regional Marine Planning process. The institutions have emphasised a departure from traditional sectoral arrangements whilst incorporating over 100 laws and policy instruments addressing aspects of the management of the marine environment and the legal jurisdictional framework established through offshore federalism(Haward and Vince, 2006). The Offshore Constitutional Settlement (OCS) returned the jurisdiction over 3nm from the low water mark to the states(Stark, 2004). OCS remains the primary intergovernmental arrangement governing ocean and marine resources in Australia and makes up the jurisdictional framework for the development and implementation of the Ocean Policy(Vince, 2004). Since Australia Ocean Policy has been developed as being an environmental protection policy the principal Australian legislation is the Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999(cth) (EPBC Act)(Akwilapo, 2007). The EPBC Act and the associated Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulation 2000 (EPBC Regulation) provide a national framework for Environment protection through focusing on protecting areas of national environmental significance and on the conservation of Australias biodiversity (Akwilapo, 2007). On the other hand, a commitment to ecologically sustainable development and multiple use management is embedded within the Oceans Policy framework emphasising a commitment to, inter alia, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Developments (UNCED) Agenda 21 principles and UNCLOS (Akwilapo, 2007). Integrated Marine Spatial Planning The AOP emphasised that Australia Regional Marine Plans is based on large marine ecosystems. This system helps to maintain ecosystem health and integrity while promoting multiple use of oceans by integrating sectoral commercial interests and conservation requirements. Australia approach to Integrated Ocean Planning and Management encompass the following(AOP2, 1998): Development of a new institutional arrangement comprising the National Oceans Ministerial Board, the National Oceans Advisory Group and the National Oceans Office and Regional Marine Plan Steering Committees. Providing policy guidance for oceans planning and management. Regional Marine Plan, based on large marine ecosystems. The first plan was developed for the south-eastern region of Australias EEZ. Funds for National marine resource surveys; development of sustainability indicators and monitoring; and rapid assessments of the biological resources of Australias oceans. The resulting information based was used to underpin effective regional integration for planning and management. These assessments also benefit industry by providing information on potential new resources such as deep-water fisheries and pharmaceuticals. Development of National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Development of Marine Parks and World Heritage Areas. Maritime Safety and Environment Protection Plan The Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council (ANZECC) has developed a strategy to protect the marine environment from shipping operations through improved environmental management of shipping and related activities(Stark, 2004). The strategy encompass: designation of marine sensitive areas, promote improvement of waste reception facilities at ports, marinas and boat harbours, improve anti-fouling practices, management and piloting a national monitoring programme for marine debris, community and industry awareness, and support for the enhanced National Plan to Combat Pollution of the Sea by Oil and Other Noxious and Hazardous Substances (the National Plan) (AOP1, 1998). Under the AOP the Government committed to enhance maritime safety and highlighted the importance of enhancing regional cooperative arrangement for search and rescue, development and implementation of search and rescue arrangements; implementation of the Global Maritime Distress Safety System(GMDS S), pursue consistent requirements for the use of Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs) and maritime communications for small vessels(AOP2, 1998). To further ensure the Safety of Navigation, the Government committed to maintain efficient coast-effective maritime safety navigation services and infrastructure, expansion of the local area Differential Global Positioning Systems (DGPS) services; technological development in marine navigation, and involvement in the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities and other international forums to ensure global navigational safety policies, standards and new technologies(AOP2, 1998). Maritime Surveillance and Security Plan To ensure that there is an effective and efficient surveillance capacity for Australias marine jurisdictions and effective enforcement of national legislation throughout Australias marine jurisdictions. Under the Oceans Policy the Australian government continued to pursue through the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and other; to increase action addressing illegal fishing in CCAMLR and adjacent waters; increased surveillance and enforcement measures in the Great Barrier Reef; continued to cooperate to review and rationalise effort involved in and capacity for surveillance and enforcement including reviewing legislation relating to enforcement in Australias marine jurisdictions(AOP2, 1998). The Oceans Policy highlighted that the Australian Defence Forces (ADF) tasks encompass safeguarding these areas, controlling of maritime approaches to exercise and protect Australias sovereignty and sovereign rights. This involve preparedness and continge ncy planning; maritime surveillance and response; fisheries law enforcement; search and rescue; hydrographic services; and the Australian Oceanographic Data Centre (AODC)(AOP2, 1998). Maritime Sector Development Plan During AOP development process the Marine Industry Development Strategy was also announced. The Strategy highlighted what the Marine Industry is worth what should incur for further resourceful developments(AOP2,1998). It illustrated that 90 per cent of Australias oil and gas is sourced offshore; that the shipbuilding industry supplies one third of the worlds high speed ferry market; wild capture fisheries represent a major primary industry; and that marine tourism is a booming industry(Vince, 2004). The Specific Measures Volume of Australia Oceans Policy underpinned several challenges facing the maritime sector and the various activities such as : fisheries; aquaculture; offshore petroleum and minerals; shipping; marine tourism; marine construction, engineering and other industries; pharmaceutical, biotechnology and genetic resources; and alternative energy resources. For meeting these challenges the policy proposed numerous activities under each one of them. For example to meet the shipping sector challenge to increase trade and regional development by delivering safe, efficient, competitive and environmentally responsible maritime infrastructure and shipping services(AOP2, 1998). The policy identified measures including: regulatory reform of the maritime sector with a view to removing barriers to competition, rationalise jurisdictional arrangements, harmonise standards and promote mutual recognition; and encourage continuous improvements in shipping and waterfront sectors to enhance the competitiveness of Australian trade and industry; to continue Australia leading role in international trade and maritime forums to ensure access to competitive and efficient international shipping services is maintained(AOP2, 1998). Marine Education and Training Plan Under Australias Marine Science and Technology Plan, NOO is responsible for providing advice to the Ministerial Board on marine research priorities relevant to the Oceans Policy to ensure that the marine research agencies are kept informed of the Governments emerging priorities(TFG, 2002). The NOMB is responsible to consider Government priorities for publicly funded marine research related to the implementation of the Oceans Policy including: community capacity building, networking opportunities, and community participation in marine management, research and monitoring and data collection; and provide opportunities for community representation on consultative committees in regard to marine resource management, the establishment of a new marine science research and teaching centre at Coffs Harbour; support for the Australian, Pacific and Global Oceans Observing Systems; establishment and operation of a Regional Office of the International Oceanographic Commission in Perth, Western Aus tralia; provision of quality maritime education and research; and training and employment in jointly managed parks; development of a long term marine education policy and programme for kindergarten to year 12 to be incorporated in curricula in all States and Territories; development of relevant resource materials for use in schools and Technical and Further Education colleges in cooperation with professional bodies; and support for the provision of quality practical educational material for teachers and students(AMSTP, 1999). National Maritime Information Center To improve monitoring and understanding of marine ecosystems and the impacts of resource use Australia government has developed the Australian Coastal Atlas, within the Environmental Resource Information Network (ERIN), to allow general access to adequate information for community involvement in oceans management as a fundamental element of the Australian Spatial Data Infrastructure(AOP2, 1998). Thus, the Australian government provided support for the Marine and Coastal Community Network to develop a comprehensive communication strategy to assist the public, industry and governments learn about and understand the role of Australias Oceans Policy. Also the government supported the Australian Surveying and Land Information Group (AUSLIGs) continuing development of the Australian Maritime Boundaries Information System as a national database of Australias maritime jurisdictional boundary data to provides Australias with an independent and scientifically credible information on Australias environment for decision-makers and the wider community(AOP2, 1998). AUSLIG is the Commonwealth focal point for coordination of geodetic information and works closely with State and Territory agencies, the Inter-governmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping (ICSM) and industry groups towards the provision of the highest quality geodetic infrastructure(AUSLIG, 2009). Moreover, AUSLIGs under the ocean policy is responsible for the development of a coordinated observations and methods to analyse and interpret the data that will make optimum use of information from remote and in situ measurements at the space and time scales required for effective monitoring, use, management and conservation(AOP2, 1998). It is clear that the lack of a comprehensive system of monitoring sites, and lack of long-term commitment to monitoring inshore and offshore, particularly on the scale of large marine ecosystems has affected Australia ability to assess changes in the condition of the marine environme nt. Thus, AOP recognized that Integration of coastal, inshore and offshore monitoring activities is vital to National capacity for future assessments and maintenance of marine and coastal environments(AOP1, 1998). National Oceans Forum To provide for Community representation and participation, the AOP established a National Oceans Advisory Group as a non-government consultative and advisory body to the National Oceans Ministerial Board(AOP1, 1998). The NOAG is responsible for promoting strategic management of the ocean environment and its resources; to provide opportunities for community representation on consultative committees in regard to marine resource management and facilitate consultation with peak indigenous groups on the requirements for establishing a national consultative mechanism, such as an annual forum(AOP1, 1998). Thus, to promote implementation of Australia Oceans Policy, the policy called for holding a National Oceans Forum to coordinate across the agencies responsible for the development of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and a broad national cross-section of those with a stake in the management of Australia oceans(IOC, 2007). International Cooperation: Given the dynamic nature of the marine environment, AOP recognized that the effective implementation of the Oceans Policy requires cooperation with immediate neighbours and other countries to address the transboundary impacts and improve regional cooperation on ocean issues(AOP1, 1998). Thus, AOP called for: peaceful use of the oceans and cooperation in access for national and international scientific research and monitoring programmes; cooperation with neighbouring countries and with industries to maximise resources; improved cooperation and coordination between existing coastal mo

US Public Lands Essay -- US territory, US Forest service, government

U.S. Public Lands are a vital part of our nation and what is stands for, but you rarely hear anything about of these lands or the creation of their units anywhere other than a bleak mention in a high school American history class where they briefly mention their conception or if you seek it out in college. The federal government owns just about 30% of all public lands in the United States, (Bureau of Land Management Lecture), which equates to almost 650 million acres, of land of all different types and terrains. The U.S. Public Lands system is divided into five major units, all owned by the federal government, all with different goals and all ran by different legislation but all still dealing with the same things: nature and the environment. When first learning about the existence of these five major units, I asked myself, why aren’t these all under the same branches, just as many other sectors of life in America. Or if anything why isn’t it up to the individual sta tes to decide how they want their land looked after? I quickly realized was that they weren’t all created as one because each different unit has it’s owns mission’s, legislations to abide by and it’s own practices and that by owning so much land federally, the United States is able to hold more control over the individual states. Although I don’t think that it will be effortless and uncomplicated, I do think that the land owned by the federal government should be devolved back to the individual states so they can customize their care for the environment that is specifically catered to their specific terrain’s needs. I believe the best alternative is for the United States to give back the federal land to the individual states, and then the individual states consol... ... are now barely breaking even, even with tourism. The only really profitable aspects are the oil, gas and mining companies, which reside on federal land but those are poorly managed and do more bad than good for the environment and all people living around them. At first it will be hard but it’s not impossible under the right leadership who truly only wants the betterment of the environment, I think with strict guidelines and rules this could be the most profitable solution for humankind and the environment. I believe that giving the land back to the states will be beneficial to help keep the costs down, centralize the efforts, and make â€Å"saving,† and â€Å"preserving,† the environment more efficient in the long run. Works Cited Edwards, Chris, and Randal O'Toole. "Reforming Federal Land Management." Downsizing the Federal Government. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2013.

William Kinmond’s What a newsman found who got into red China and Mark

William Kinmond’s What a newsman found who got into red China and Mark Salzman’s Iron and Silk In William Kinmond’s â€Å"What a newsman found who got into red China† and Mark Salzman’s Iron and Silk, the reader experiences a mental ride of China. Both Salzman and Kinmond use subtlety and skill to write about what they found in Red China. The texts’ have somewhat different subject matters because each writer visited China with different motives and at different time periods. As the title suggests, Kinmond who goes to China in 1957 is there to report for the Canadian newspaper ‘The Globe and Mail’. On the other hand, Salzman goes to China in 1982 to teach English. Nonetheless, both writers’ construction of Red China and its people can be zeroed in with the help of one important issue; their coverage of train transport. Trains are by far the main means of transport in China and most people’s lives are centered around them. Although, through the analysis of train travel, both Salzman and Kinmond construct the C hinese people, Salzman concentrates on the government connection in train transport while Kinmond concentrates on the actual conditions aboard a train. Salzman’s first point about government interference is that travel officials are on a power trip when it comes to dealing with travelers. Since the communist government controls and governs all aspects of train business, Salzman vividly constructs the relationship between the people and the government. He shows that unlike in his home country of USA, travel officials in China go out of their way to deliberately interfere with people’s travels. After two years of teaching English and learning kung-fu in China, Salzman’s received lots of gifts from hi... ...r the reader through their coverage of train travel although they each largely concentrate on the different aspects of it. Salzman illustrates that the government is present in all aspects of train travel in china and people have to put up to its way of running the show. Kinmond shows that the train accommodation is of so low key, but the Chinese people put up to it anyway. Their similar observation concerning government propaganda soliciting should show the ‘the cause and effect’ relationship between government interference and bad accommodation. Works Cited List: Chui, May. Student at Lafayette College. An interview with her in the library. April 11, 2001. Kinmond, William. â€Å"What a Newsman Found Who Got into Red China†. US News and World Report. New York. August 9th, 1957. Salzman , Mark. Iron and Silk . Vintage Departments . New York (1986).

A Peoples History of the United States vs the Enduring Vision Essay

How complete are our textbooks these days? Yes, they may cover Christopher Columbus’s all the way to today’s current events. But just how complete are they? Often books tend to lean a certain direction, and offer perspective from only one point of view; most commonly the views of the victors, dominant country or possibly stories of heroes. What about the other side? Far too often the lesser of the two is left out of the textbooks and out of our minds. There are always two sides to a story, in this case, much of what we read is a mere, â€Å"partial truth†. In the following paragraphs and analysis, assumptions and generalizations we have made about our country and it’s â€Å"heroes† will be examined in an in-depth interpretation of the standard American textbook, The Enduring Vision vs. Howard Zinn’s, A People’s History of the United States, a strongly worded book meant to offer a different point of view, one not of the hero, but of men they truly were. Everyone knows who discovered America, Christopher Columbus, of course! â€Å"In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue† At a very young age we are taught that, but that’s only half the story. According to, The Enduring Vision, â€Å"Religious Fervor led Columbus to dream of carrying Christianity around the globe, but he also hungered for wealth and glory. †(p. 27) Upon discovery, Columbus became very fond of himself, and what he had done. He discovered a land and a people that before his discovery never existed. Because of this, Columbus’s hunger for wealth and glory came to the forefront. The textbook makes no mention of the less publicized portions of his life; it certainly was not carrying Christianity to the world. The book fails to mention, the cruel and inhumane things that were done to the Native American who currently inhabited the â€Å"New World†. Those actions seem to be brushed under the rug, because of the fact that he is an American hero. However, Howard Zinn offers a view from a different perspective. â€Å"†¦They willingly traded everything they owned†¦. They were well built, with good bodies and handsome features†¦They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance. They have no iron. Their spears are made of cane†¦. They would make fine servants†¦. With fifty men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want. † (Zinn 17) Columbus’s lust for wealth, power, and domination of the people blinded his view of spreading Christianity. In Columbus’s report back to the royal court in Madrid, Spain, Columbus uses religious talk to convince the court that he was establishing a community, and to establish fame and a reputation back in Spain. In exchange for a little help, Columbus was to bring them, â€Å"as much gold as they need†¦ and as many slaves as they ask. Concluding his report he said, â€Å"Thus the eternal God, our Lord, gives victory to those who follow His was over apparent impossibilities† (Zinn 20) this was not entirely true, his report was exaggerated, however, the court granted him his expanded fleet and men. However, Columbus was not out to colonize the new world, he was looking for his personal gain ; Gold, and slaves. This American â€Å"Hero† isn’t everything the history books and movies make him out to be. Columbus was a liar, cruel, and was out for glory and fame. It’s a sad truth to such an important piece of an American history. As American we would like to believe that Columbus was the man he was made up to be, and definitely not a â€Å"Christ-like† figure. He was much more than an explorer who owned a few slaves; he is a man responsible for the institution of slavery and the murder of many, many Native Americans. Another well-known figure in history has a distorted past, he happens to be one of our most respected presidents; Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson is perhaps most known for his hand in writing the Declaration of Independence. Although Jefferson was a major player in gaining our country’s independence from England; he wasn’t much for granting independence to a certain group of people in America. Although, it is noted that Jefferson had a personal distaste for slavery, that did not stop him from owning slaves, hundreds of slaves until the day he died. Jefferson even slipped a portion his views into the Declaration of Independence. It is a very common cliche phrase that is known by many, in which he lists property, in a list of â€Å"unalienable† rights. That among these are Life, Liberty, and property† However, Congress didn’t approve, and instead, they chose, â€Å"Life, Liberty and the pursuit of happiness†. Slaves were often referred to as property at that time, not human beings, but property, as if they were a possession. So, who really was Jefferson, was he a noble president, who still today remains a prominent figure in the history of the United States? Or was he just like everyone else, a slave owner, and didn’t truly believe that â€Å"All men are created equal†? Personally, I believe that Jefferson was a product of the time period. Being a slave owner was common; he was in line with what wealthy plantation owners. He may have believed that slavery was not a moral institution, but that doesn’t require him to being an abolitionist. According to Zinn, Jefferson’s paragraph was removed because, â€Å"slaveholders themselves with the desirability of ending the slave trade. †(Zinn 77) Thomas Jefferson was an extremely intelligent man, and I believe he wrote that, with the foresight of the country in mind. He knew that it should not be a part of America going forward, however, at the time; it was a part of life. In addition to that, Jefferson needed to keep his popularity high, and by ending the slave-trade, Jefferson would lose many of his supporters. For this I believe that in this case Zinn may be bias, he goes after every flaw in people we look up to, and we simply cannot expect them to be perfect. Yes, they may have made some mistake and at times be hypocritical, but everyone is guilty of that at some time in their life, especially at a time where presidents where selected on what they had done in battle, not in politics. The next difference comes in the form of another president. Andrew Jackson, the face of our twenty dollar bill. According to the textbook, â€Å"Jackson’s victory over the British at the Battle of New Orleans made him a national hero, and southerners admired him as a Tennessee slaveholder, a renowned Indian fighter, and an advocate of Indian removal† 216). Many American regarded Jackson as a â€Å"Living link to a more virtuous past. † Upon, gaining the presidency, one of Jackson’s first moves was to remove all the members of upper ranking officeholders†¦of the rival party. It was not well received by many; they began calling it the â€Å"spoils system†. He defended his actions by conveying that it was on the basis of Democracy; so that more people could work for the government. Jackson often gave jobs to family members or friends before giving the public their fair shake. Jackson was also willing to give jobs to people who weren’t qualified, because he knew them. This wasn’t the only thing that Jackson took heat for; his â€Å"morals† got him into more trouble. Jackson was easily bribed, and used deception as well as force to get what he wanted. Whether it was land or gold, Jackson was willing to use his power as president for his gain. Zinn 128) Zinn, points out the fact that this will never be printed in a text book, as Jackson is a face of this country. â€Å"If you look through high school textbooks and elementary school text books in American history you will find Jackson the frontiersman, soldier, democrat, man of the people-not Jackson the slaveholder, land speculator, executioner of dissident soldiers, exterminator of the Indians. †(Zinn 125) Strong and harsh words for a man, especially a president nonetheless. As we have seen in this and past examples, that Zinn emphasizes the other side of the story, the one you don’t hear about. Unfortunately, these are stories that everyone should know. Zinn, places an emphasis on teaching what the textbooks don’t, the textbooks focus on the spoils and fame of the individual. Howard Zinn provides an alternative view that sheds light on the morals of these men, which are not well publicized. Abraham Lincoln, the savior of the Union, often considered to be one of the best if not the best presidents in the history of the United States. However, this is one of the rare instances in which Zinn agrees with the textbook. For once, Zinn focuses on the results, rather the character. Lincoln didn’t believe that the African-Americans were his equal, but he did believe they had the rights of a human being; no human should be subject to being owned by another. However, Lincoln’s main priority was to preserve the Union, and to unite the States of America. The fact that Zinn agrees with the textbook in their positive view of Lincoln, shows the Zinn is not out to attack our great American Heroes. However, Zinn simply wishes for the other side of the story to be told, after all, all this stuff should be taught. Teaching as if this never happened, is like teaching addition without subtraction. Finally, we conclude with yet another president; our first President of the United States, George Washington: The fearless and ambitious leader that America looked to, to become our first president and lead the country in a positive direction. The Enduring Vision says it well, â€Å"American Victory depended on the ability of one man to keep his army fighting despite defeat† (120) Washington’s record in battle was poor, he lost more times than he won. However, the important part was that the people followed him. George was exceptionally tall for this time, so people naturally looked to him to lead them-despite losing. However, Washington was a slaveholder himself. Although, he did free them before he died. During the Revolutionary war, Washington did turn down a request of black slaves to fight in the army. (Zinn 83) Despite, his downfall, George Washington was an honorable man, who was the perfect choice for first President of the United States. Zinn tends to tarnish Washington’s reputation, with some of the things he chooses to publish; he gives Washington little credit for his accomplishments. In fact, I believe that Washington’s failures is what makes him such an insightful historical figure, failure spurred his ambition for bigger and better things. In conclusion, I have determined that much of what is printed is only partial truth. Thanks to Howard Zinn, people can explore the character that shaped out country. Although Zinn may seem to attack these men, he is simply pointing out that they weren’t the men they are made out to be in modern day history books and films. After reading, A People’s History of the United States, I am very pleased that someone decided that the truth must be told; even though it is not always what we want to hear.

Environmentalism and Deforestation Activities Essay

Deforestation is a severe environmental destruction which cannot be revived easily if changed at current rate. Therefore, I totally agree that deforestation causes a lot of environmental problems. Deforestation includes the cutting down, burning and destructing of forests. The deforestation affects the ecosystem and disrupts the oxygen and carbon oxide cycle. People have an impression that if the trees were cut down, it will grow back in a few years. Everyone knows the trees are very important in our daily life because it can produces oxygen to people can breathe with fresh air. However, the trees become less because deforestation. We can plant more trees around the environment to prevent the deforestation. Furthermore, plant more trees also can prevent our health and the global warming. In short, we can plant more trees to stop the deforestation. On the other hand, we can recycle the anything that we can recycle it. The paper that we use every day was makes from trees, so, we cannot waste the paper and we must reuse the part that can be used. We also can buy the variety of recycled items likewise papers, toilet paper, note books, and shopping bags. When we start use the recycled things, we can save many the demand of raw material replaced by the recycled products. We can join the environmental group to prevent deforestation and and protect our environment. When we join the group, we can make some notice boards about the serious of deforestation. For example, we can write the ‘Please save our earth!’, ‘Stop cutting the trees!’ and the others. The notice board can placed at the college, school, or the road side to remaining people that our earth was dangerous now. In fact, people can realize the deforestation was very harmful to our earth. In conclusion, the deforestation was cause many environmental problems. Therefore, we need some way to stop all such deforestation activities immediately for our earth future become very well.